The Rise of Cats and Madness: I. The Renaissance (PDF)

From the middle of the thirteenth century until the end of the Renaissance, cats were regarded as utilitarian creatures to guard food supplies from rodents. Otherwise, except for a small group of artists, writers, and clerics, most people regarded cats as being associated with the Devil. During these years madness was relatively uncommon and, in most cases, caused by medical conditions which had existed for many centuries.

Ammonia has been known by its odor since ancient times. It was isolated in the 18th century by notable chemists Joseph Black (Scotland), Peter Woulfe (Ireland), Carl Wilhelm Scheele (Sweden/Germany), and Joseph Priestley (England). In 1785, French chemist Claude Louis Berthollet determined its elemental composition.

Cats and Satan 

From the middle of the thirteenth century until the end of the Renaissance, cats were regarded as utilitarian creatures to guard food supplies from rodents. Otherwise, except for a small group of artists, writers, and clerics, most people regarded cats as being associated with the Devil. During these years madness was relatively uncommon and, in most cases, caused by medical conditions which had existed for many centuries.

To understand the profound change that has occurred in our relationship with cats over the past five centuries, one must first understand how they developed such a bad reputation. Their road to infamy began in 30 BCE when Roman forces under Octavian defeated Egypt and made it a Roman province. The Romans then imported the Egyptian goddess Isis and her companion, the cat-headed goddess, Bastet. According to Donald Engels’ book on Classical Cats , “The enormous popularity of Isis during the Roman Empire cannot be stressed enough: there are vast quantities of dedicatory inscriptions, votive offerings, altars and temples dedicated to her throughout Europe.” Over time Isis merged with the Roman goddess Diana, the goddess of the hunt and nature. As her companion, Bastet protected women and children and was also associated with fertility and childbirth. The Isis-Diana-Bastet religious cult was especially popular with women and spread throughout Southern Europe as the Roman Empire extended its reach. Thus the cat became an important symbol for a religion that became increasingly widespread

At the same time as Roman administrators and traders were disseminating a cat-related religion across Europe, the Roman army was disseminating cats. Cats were important to the army to protect its food supplies and were also regarded as symbols of good luck. According to one source, “a cat was often emblazoned on the shields and flags of Roman soldiers.” Thus, for example, cats were brought to England by Roman legions who invaded in 43 CE under Emperor Claudius. After defeating the Celts, Claudius entered their capital at Colchester “at the head of an army made doubly impressive by elephants.” The Romans would remain in England for almost 400 years

Ammonia was once used widely as a refrigerant. It has largely been displaced by chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons, which are also under environmental scrutiny. Probably the most familiar household use of ammonia is in glass cleaners.

Although the cult of Diana was widespread in Southern Europe, other religions existed in the north. There the various tribes of Teutonic stock, including the Goths, Franks, Saxons, Angeles, and Jutes, had largely resisted the Romans and their influence. Many of them followed the Norse religion and worshipped Odin, also known as Wotan, the warrior god; his son Thor (the origin of Thursday), the thunder god; and Freya (the origin of Friday) the fertility goddess and sister-in-law of Odin. The importance of these deities was illustrated by the description of a Norse temple in Uppsala, Sweden:



In the great temple, 900 ells [450 yards] in circumference, and glittering on all sides with gold, stood the image of Odin, sword in hand. In his right was Freya, with the emblem of fertility, and on his left Thor with his hammer.

All of these deities play roles in Richard Wagner’s four nineteenth-century operas, “Der Ring des Nibelungen”

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